Spiritual Intimacy, by Louis Lavelle

The texts included in this volume are articles written by Louis Lavelle for philosophy journals, communications at conferences, and lectures given at universities in France and abroad. Each of them presents, in summary, one of the essential themes of his doctrine: Spirit, Time, Self, the relationship between Spirit and the World, Essence and Existence, Participation. They span a period from 1936 to 1951, during which he co-directed, with René Le Senne, the collection “Philosophie de l’Esprit” (Philosophy of the Spirit). Through some texts in this volume, one can see the importance he attached to this series of works. It was also the period when he was writing his major work, “La Dialectique de l’éternel Présent” (The Dialectic of the Eternal Present), which was supposed to be crowned by a final part on Wisdom. He was not granted the time to write it. He was preparing it in his final meditations, and when he was invited to participate in the activities of the Society of Philosophy of Bordeaux in 1950, he chose as his subject: Wisdom as the science of spiritual life. It seemed to us that no text could be more suitable for the conclusion of this volume, which contains a summary of his entire doctrine and ends as his work was supposed to end, with the idea of wisdom where he saw the culmination of all philosophy.

—THE EDITORS.

Notes on Symbolism and Reality, by Olavo de Carvalho

In Olavo de Carvalho’s Notes on Symbolism and Reality, from his Philosophy Seminar, he addresses the concept of symbolism and its relation to reality. He critiques the reductionist methodologies often used in deciphering symbols, namely the ethnological, psychological, and esoteric methods. Olavo argues that these methods tend to divert attention from the nature of the symbol itself, and instead focus on the causes behind symbol production. His proposed approach to understanding symbols calls for a suspension of systematic interpretation efforts until a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of the symbol is achieved. He emphasizes the significance of recognizing the distinctiveness between symbolic and non-symbolic meanings ascribed to words, graphics, objects, and entities.

Olavo then delves into what he terms the “rotational perspective,” which underpins the act of knowledge itself. He emphasizes that every step actualized in consciousness implies the virtualization of others, leading to a structure of knowledge that is more akin to a rotating perspective. He adds that this structure is fundamental to the very nature of thought, perception, and the very being of things. He insists that neither abstract thought nor sensory perception can wholly know anything in an instant or as a whole. Rather, our understanding or knowledge of something comes in parts, with some aspects coming to the fore while others recede into the background.

Finally, Olavo confronts the idea of unity in relation to sense and the perception of reality. He posits that the fragmentation of the world into supposedly pre-categorical “data” is a fallacy that is either the result of pathological states of ego division or efforts of imaginative abstraction. Olavo argues that the unity and meaning of the world are given, not constructed, and that the task of philosophy is to record and defend the intuitively perceived world from dissolution. He also addresses the implications of the expectation of continuity beyond death as a necessary condition of human action, asserting that the general movement of the cosmos impacts all human experiences.

Identity and Univocity, by Olavo de Carvalho

Identity and univocity, by Olavo de Carvalho, is a draft for a philosophy seminar on the topic of identity and univocity. It begins with definitions of metaphysics, necessity, critical metaphysics, and dogmatic metaphysics. The author presents a series of axioms, including the idea that self-evident propositions are those whose contradictories cannot be formulated in a logically univocal way. The text then introduces the supreme metaphysical principle called the Principle of Integrity, which asserts that every subject of a proposition that can be the object of an action or the subject of an action by another subject is one and the same. The text explores various forms of suppression and reduction in relation to this principle. It also discusses self-evident propositions and argues that the principle of identity is self-evident because its contradictory lacks univocal meaning. Olavo claims that self-evident propositions are necessarily true and that evidence cannot be hypothetical. The self-evidence and truth of the Principle of Integrity are emphasized. The text provides an example of another self-evident proposition: “I am here.” The self-evidence and necessary truth of St. Anselm’s proof are also discussed. The author argues against the existence of purely formal logical self-evidences and distinguishes between logic and metaphysics. The text concludes with the statement that logic is based on self-evident principles but does not encompass the entire domain of truth. The draft indicates that it is part of a larger work in progress called “The Eye of the Sun” and will be used for an oral presentation in the Philosophy Seminar.

The appendix includes a discussion between a participant named Villiers de L’Isle-Adam and Olavo de Carvalho in the Sapientia Forum. Villiers raises the topic of the principle of non-contradiction formulated by Aristotle and presents a study by Jan Lukasiewicz that examines different formulations of this principle. Lukasiewicz’s analysis focuses on the ontological and logical formulations and explores their validity. Villiers discusses Lukasiewicz’s arguments, including the challenge to the principle of non-contradiction posed by contradictory objects and the distinction between real objects, constructive abstractions, and reconstructive abstractions. Villiers acknowledges the practical importance of the principle in everyday life but questions its complete validity in relation to certain objects and situations. Olavo de Carvalho responds by stating that Lukasiewicz’s challenge is not metaphysically valid and fails to distinguish between logical and ontological aspects. He argues that Lukasiewicz’s arguments actually presuppose the validity of the principle of identity. Olavo criticizes the separation of logic and ontology and warns against drawing ontological conclusions from purely constructive formalisms. He suggests referring to his forthcoming book, “The Eye of the Sun,” for further clarification on the topic.

(The book “The Eye of the Sun” was never published, and might never be published now that Olavo has died.)

Commentary on Cicero’s Topics by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius

The Commentary on Cicero’s Topics by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, otherwise known as In Ciceronis Topica (ICT), is a comprehensive exploration and discussion on Cicero’s Topics. Boethius’s commentary is divided into six books, each comprising different aspects and interpretations of logic, arguments, and various topics addressed by Cicero. The commentary was written around 520–523 AD and it overlaps with De topicis differentiis in content and time period. The version transmitted to us, however, appears to be unfinished, missing the end of the sixth book and the entirety of the seventh book that Boethius claims to have written.

The first four books of ICT delve into the nature of logic and topics, providing commentary on different philosophers’ perspectives, including Stoics, Cicero, Plato, and Aristotle. Boethius explores the meaning of argumentation, the structure and role of propositions, and the concept of maximal propositions. There’s an in-depth exploration of ‘Topics,’ where Boethius discusses the division of Topics and the subdivisions of Topics in relation to the matter at issue. The nature and role of related things in the formation of arguments is addressed extensively, with a specific focus on how these relate to the subject at hand. Books III and IV further delve into definition, partition, designation, and the understanding of related things.

In the fifth and sixth books, Boethius scrutinizes the seven Stoic modes of hypothetical syllogisms, the role of causes in arguments, and presents a critical commentary on Cicero’s representation of these modes. A deep analysis is offered on the nature of argument, question, proposition, and terms. There’s also a discussion on the nature of effects and their role in arguments, as well as a focus on comparisons. Additionally, the division of Topics is reviewed along with the reasoning for believing it complete. Finally, the extrinsic Topic from authority and its role in argumentation is discussed, along with the conditions and circumstances that give rise to authority.

12 Layers of Personality, by Olavo de Carvalho

The Twelve Layers of Human Personality, And Their Unique Forms of Suffering, by Olavo de Carvalho, is a comprehensive exploration of the different stages or layers of human personality development and the associated suffering. Olavo views personality as a whole that undergoes transitions between layers, each influenced by new objectives or focal points in life. The layers can be divided into integrative layers, which enclose the personality within a defined framework, and divisive layers, which expose the personality to external influences and trigger a struggle for higher integration. Throughout the text, Olavo delves into each layer, discussing its characteristics, developmental milestones, and the specific forms of suffering individuals may experience within each layer.

According to Olavo, each layer represents a significant shift in the purpose and focus of the individual’s life. These transitions occur when the entire personality changes as a whole, without altering its individual parts. The whole personality can only change in relation to something external to itself, often a new objective or focal point in life that the individual strives to achieve. These transitions mark the progression and evolution of the individual’s personality over time, resembling a scheme of life and temporal development.

Olavo’s theory emphasizes that self-consciousness plays a crucial role in understanding the layers of personality. Each new layer represents a new pattern of self-consciousness, and the transitions between layers involve shifts in values, objectives, and the overall direction of the individual’s life. The layers encompass various aspects of human existence, including physical attributes, temperament, cognition, emotions, social roles, intellectual pursuits, and moral responsibilities. Suffering arises within each layer due to failures, misunderstandings, discrepancies between intentions and abilities, and unmet expectations.

Overall, Olavo’s work provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the development of human personality and the unique forms of suffering experienced at each layer. By exploring the transitions between layers and the changing objectives and focal points in an individual’s life, the text offers valuable insights into the complexities of human existence and the challenges individuals face in their personal growth and self-realization.

The Size Switch, by Monteiro Lobato

“The Size Switch” [A Chave do Tamanho] is a children’s book written by Monteiro Lobato and published in 1942. It features Littlenose [Narizinho], Aunt Nastácia, the cook, the Viscount of Corncobia [Visconde de Sabugosa], a wise corn cob, Quindim, a domesticated rhinoceros, Counselor, a talking donkey, and the Marquis de Stub-Tailed [Marquis de Rabicó], the little pig who was married to Emília, the rag doll that evolved into a human-like being. And Emília is the protagonist of this book, where her mischievous act is recounted: the temporary shrinking of human beings.

Boethius’s Second Commentary on Porphyry’s Isagoge

In Boethius’s second commentary on Porphyry’s “Isagoge,” he delves into the nature of reality and its connection to language and understanding. He begins by discussing the signification of individual things, noting that individuals can be identified either through descriptions or proper names. Boethius emphasizes that understanding plays a crucial role in mediating the relationship between expressions and reality.

When it comes to universal expressions, Boethius presents a more intricate perspective. He believes that universals are abstracted from reality through understanding, which has the power of abstraction and division. Boethius explains this process using the example of a line in a body, where the mind can discern the abstract nature of the line apart from the concrete body. Universals, according to Boethius, exist in singulars but are thought of as universals. He also discusses the process of abstraction, where the likeness of universals is gathered from existing things, such as the likeness of humanity from individual humans.

Boethius’s commentary on Porphyry’s “Isagoge” had a significant impact on medieval Latin logicians in the twelfth century. His interpretations of Aristotelian logic became influential as scholars relied on his commentaries for their understanding of difficult texts. Boethius played a crucial role in transmitting ancient interpretations of Aristotelian logic into the medieval context. His insights on the relationship between expressions, understanding, and reality were highly regarded and shaped subsequent philosophical discussions in the field.

Golden Verses of Pythagoras, Translated With Commentary by Mário Ferreira dos Santos

The unpublished manuscripts of Mário Ferreira dos Santos include commentaries on the Golden Verses of Pythagoras. His intention was to publish them, as he stated:

...“Regarding the commented Golden Verses of Pythagoras, it consists of the following: I have decided to make an edition with the complete translation of the commentaries by Hierocles, because undoubtedly, not only because they are the first commentaries that have reached us, but also because of their immense value. They provide an opportunity for us to awaken awareness in many areas that the conception brought to the world by Pythagoras derived from a much more distant thought, certainly one that also had roots in Melchizedek and in the deepest thought of the Egyptians, and this thought surpasses the characteristics of time and remains eternally current, presenting its complete validity today. I make use of the comments made by other authors, such as Fabre D’Olivet, Paul Carton, etc., and create a kind of synthesis, adding my own contributions alongside Hierocles’s commentaries.”

In his book, “Pythagoras and the Theme of Number,” he expresses his intention to develop a more detailed biography of the Master of Samos, having compiled a large portion of the material to be used. Unfortunately, he did not have time to elaborate on the final text. For this reason, we have included “Pythagorean Thought” published in the Dictionary of Philosophy and Cultural Sciences.

The present edition of the “Commentary on the Golden Verses of Pythagoras” has not been fully corrected by the author, especially in the part corresponding to the “Comments on Hierocles’s Comments,” and it is up to us to complete it as much as possible.

Yolanda Lhullier Santos
Nadiejda Santos Nunes Galvão

Treatise on Symbolics by Mário Ferreira dos Santos

The Treatise on Symbolics by Mário Ferreira dos Santos, featured as the sixth volume in his Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences, stands out as a unique and important work within Brazilian philosophy. While delving into a subject relatively unknown in Brazil at the time, the treatise offers a didactic departure from Mário’s personal philosophical exposition. It presents fundamental principles of a science of symbolics, drawing from the works of notable treatise writers such as Matila Ghyka, Mircea Eliade, and René Guénon. The book explores the symbolic interpretations of numbers according to Pythagoreanism, establishing a sensory foundation to enhance comprehension of abstract concepts. Despite its seemingly less philosophical nature, the Treatise unintentionally serves as a remarkably didactic introduction to Mário Ferreira dos Santos’s philosophical thought, offering readers an imaginative and sensory groundwork to tackle the profound abstractions found in the subsequent volumes of the Encyclopedia.

Included in this edition, alongside the complete text of the Treatise on Symbolics, are two additional texts: “The Application of Mathesis in Symbolics” and “Can Symbolics Treated Mathematically Lead Us to the Unity of Religions?” These texts originated from transcriptions of lectures given by Mário Ferreira dos Santos, with no specific date provided. The Treatise itself holds a position of significance within Mário’s extensive philosophical production, showcasing its intellectual autonomy and engaging in dialogue with other philosophies from a highly personal standpoint. While its thematic focus on the study of symbols may initially seem divergent from the other volumes, the author recognizes the treatise’s importance as a methodological and conceptual tool within the overarching philosophical path of the Encyclopedia.

Rules of Daily Life, by Louis Lavelle

Rules of Daily Life, by Louis Lavelle, explores the concept of philosophical spirituality, a rational reflection that elevates the soul and confronts it with higher ideals of beauty and goodness. Unlike religious spirituality, Lavelle’s work is not tied to any specific faith but offers a nourishment for the soul that is relevant to contemporary humanity’s search for meaning. Through the book, Lavelle seeks to transform everyday life, finding depth and significance in even the smallest gestures. His philosophy emphasizes the importance of self-effort and reflection, aiming to uplift and morally elevate one’s personality.

In the book, Lavelle provides rules to follow in everyday life, not unlike the manuals of Christian life that offer guidance based on the Gospel. However, Lavelle’s rules are not mere repetitions of religious teachings but draw inspiration from spiritual literature, extracting their philosophical significance. By seeking rules for everyday life, Lavelle encourages a transformative approach to the mundane, allowing individuals to escape superficiality and discover real depth in their daily experiences. He rejects the notion that everyday life is repetitive and meaningless, instead advocating for a philosophical commitment to uncovering its inherent value.

Introduction to Categorical Syllogisms by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius

“Introduction to Categorical Syllogisms” (Introductio ad syllogismos categoricos, ISC), authored by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, is a seminal work on the understanding and exploration of categorical syllogisms, based on Aristotelian principles. This text serves as an elaboration of the material covered in the first book of “On the Categorical Syllogism.” Composed after 513, likely around 523, the ISC delves into the relationship between truth and falsity within various forms of proposition, including those arising from the manipulation of terms within the standard four forms in the square of opposition. The text is particularly notable for its depth of detail, expanding significantly on Boethius’s earlier textbook on the subject, and is speculated to be either unfinished or to have had a second book which has been lost over time.

Boethius’s ISC systematically explores the relationship between subjects and predicates in five possible relations, which he determines in the context of their separation, their inherent nature, their applicability or non-applicability to the subject, and their ability to exceed the subject. The text also explores the role of truth and falsity within each relation, thereby offering profound insights into the logical structuring of categorical syllogisms. This work, therefore, is a critical exploration of the ways in which logic can be applied and understood within the realm of propositional relationships.

The ISC is an integral part of Boethius’s larger exploration of syllogistic reasoning, which also includes his work “On the Categorical Syllogism” (SC). The ISC is noted for its detailed treatment of the subject, which includes, among other things, an expansion on Aristotle’s rules of conversion and a detailed exploration of conversion by contraposition. The ISC, like its companion text the SC, is based heavily on the ideas of Aristotle, Porphyry, Eudemus, and Theophrastus, but it also includes Boethius’s own substantial contributions to the field, notably his insights into the effect of the contents of sentences on their relations. As such, the ISC is not just a reiteration of earlier work but a significant contribution to the field of syllogistic reasoning in its own right.

On Hypothetical Syllogisms, by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius

Boethius’s treatise On Hypothetical Syllogisms explores the nature and classification of hypothetical sentences and the construction of valid hypothetical syllogisms. The treatise challenges the traditional view that it deals with the logic of sentences and highlights Boethius’s approach to the topic. Boethius distinguishes between hypothetical sentences, which involve conditions, and categorical sentences, which make predications. He identifies two types of hypothetical sentences: those connected by “if” and those connected by “or.” While it may initially seem that Boethius is presenting a sentence logic, he argues that his focus is on the term logic of hypotheticals.

In the treatise, Boethius aims to create a systematic classification and tabulation of hypothetical syllogisms, similar to Aristotle’s categorical syllogistic. He begins by discussing two-term hypothetical sentences and proceeds to analyze three-term and four-term hypothetical sentences. Boethius employs letter symbols to represent sentence types and uses examples of predicates to illustrate their meaning. He establishes different schemes and figures for three-term hypothetical sentences based on the shared middle term. Throughout his analysis, Boethius addresses various constraints and rules that govern the validity of hypothetical syllogisms. While some of his formulations may appear peculiar from a sentence logic perspective, Boethius’s work demonstrates his effort to develop a term logic of hypotheticals that aligns with the results of modern sentence logic. The treatise concludes with a brief examination of hypothetical syllogisms from disjunction, which Boethius argues can be translated into syllogisms from connection.

On Division, by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius

On Division, by Boethius, is a logical work that explores the different forms and principles of division. The author discusses division of genus into species, division of a whole into its parts, and division of a word into its meanings. He emphasizes the importance of definitions, the distinction between univocal and equivocal terms, and the criteria for determining which differences should be included or excluded in a division. Boethius also covers the division of speech into significances, highlighting the need for clear determination in communication.

Furthermore, the work delves into the division of a whole based on its composition, distinguishing between continuous and non-continuous wholes. It explores division based on matter and form, as well as division of universal wholes and wholes consisting of virtues. Boethius emphasizes that division should be understood as a mental and rational process rather than a physical separation. He provides examples, guidelines, and cautions throughout the text to aid readers in understanding and applying the principles of division effectively.

Discourse on the Natural Theology of the Chinese by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Leibniz’s Discourse on the Natural Theology of the Chinese explores his attempt to understand and reconstruct the Chinese metaphysical ideas. He acknowledges the Chinese lack the Western art of demonstration but praises their superior civility. Leibniz examines the concept of Li, the supreme unity, finding contradictions in its attributes and suggesting it as a spiritual substance. He questions the relationships between Li, Taikie, and Xangti, highlighting the complexities within Chinese interpretations. Leibniz suspects the missionaries' reported beliefs might have mixed diverse sources and imposed external interpretations, distorting the texts. He concludes that his method of analyzing structural analogies and relations aligns with the Chinese way of thinking.

In the book’s fourth section, Leibniz admires the Chinese binary arithmetic found in the Yijing. Leibniz understood Chinese ideas better than the missionaries, despite not having direct access to their texts. Leibniz’s method of reconstructing coherent doctrines by emphasizing relations and context proved effective. He critiqued and rectified the missionaries’ interpretations, considering their beliefs on the immortal soul as potentially distorted. Overall, Leibniz’s work sheds light on Chinese metaphysics and the complexities of their religious concepts.

On Categorical Syllogisms by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius

Boethius’s treatise On Categorical Syllogisms, written around 505 or 506 AD, is a significant treatise on Aristotelian logic. The work covers the theory of terms, propositions, and categorical syllogisms, and draws on the teachings of Aristotle, Porphyry, Theophrastus, and Eudemus. Boethius acknowledges that some of the material in the treatise is borrowed from Porphyry’s introduction to the categorical syllogisms, which evaluates and approves the syllogistic theory of Theophrastus and Eudemus.

On Categorical Syllogisms is divided into two books. The first book covers the theory of propositions in a comprehensive manner, going beyond what Aristotle teaches in the De Interpretatione by including the relationship of subalternation, a wide-ranging exposition on conversion, and an extension of the results of accidental conversion to negative particular propositions. The second book covers the theory of the syllogism, drawing not only on Aristotle’s Prior Analytics but also on Theophrastus and Porphyry’s adaptation of it. The treatise also introduces a division of categorical propositions that presents and defines the main logical operations of Aristotelian logic: opposition, conversion, and the syllogisms, including their main extensions.

Five Letters to Father Verjus by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

In this series of letters, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz writes to Father Verjus discussing various topics related to China and their mission there. Leibniz expresses gratitude for the introduction to Father Bouvet, who possesses knowledge about China, and emphasizes the importance of the mission for the glory of God, the spread of Christianity, and the advancement of arts and sciences. He seeks information about China’s geography, languages, and ancient history, as well as instructions on Chinese characters. Leibniz also discusses his own contributions to invention and philosophy, addresses concerns about Cartesian philosophy and the misinterpretation of his views, and proposes a new system of characters to aid in education and conversion.

Throughout the letters, Leibniz expresses his support for Father Verjus’s mission and discusses various developments and challenges. He mentions the reprinting of his work, “Novissima Sinica,” his contemplation of a new character system for precise calculations, and his progress in the calculus of infinitesimals. Leibniz shares his enthusiasm for the spread of Christianity in China and the potential for evangelical work there. He also discusses topics such as Tartar conflicts, the death of the Chinese monarch, and the provision of his works to other individuals. Leibniz emphasizes the importance of knowledge exchange between Europe and China, suggesting that missionaries engage in research and compilation of Chinese knowledge. He concludes by stating that investigating Chinese knowledge is crucial for the advancement of both religion and science.