Discourse on the Natural Theology of the Chinese by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Leibniz’s Discourse on the Natural Theology of the Chinese explores his attempt to understand and reconstruct the Chinese metaphysical ideas. He acknowledges the Chinese lack the Western art of demonstration but praises their superior civility. Leibniz examines the concept of Li, the supreme unity, finding contradictions in its attributes and suggesting it as a spiritual substance. He questions the relationships between Li, Taikie, and Xangti, highlighting the complexities within Chinese interpretations. Leibniz suspects the missionaries' reported beliefs might have mixed diverse sources and imposed external interpretations, distorting the texts. He concludes that his method of analyzing structural analogies and relations aligns with the Chinese way of thinking.

In the book’s fourth section, Leibniz admires the Chinese binary arithmetic found in the Yijing. Leibniz understood Chinese ideas better than the missionaries, despite not having direct access to their texts. Leibniz’s method of reconstructing coherent doctrines by emphasizing relations and context proved effective. He critiqued and rectified the missionaries’ interpretations, considering their beliefs on the immortal soul as potentially distorted. Overall, Leibniz’s work sheds light on Chinese metaphysics and the complexities of their religious concepts.

Five Letters to Father Verjus by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

In this series of letters, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz writes to Father Verjus discussing various topics related to China and their mission there. Leibniz expresses gratitude for the introduction to Father Bouvet, who possesses knowledge about China, and emphasizes the importance of the mission for the glory of God, the spread of Christianity, and the advancement of arts and sciences. He seeks information about China’s geography, languages, and ancient history, as well as instructions on Chinese characters. Leibniz also discusses his own contributions to invention and philosophy, addresses concerns about Cartesian philosophy and the misinterpretation of his views, and proposes a new system of characters to aid in education and conversion.

Throughout the letters, Leibniz expresses his support for Father Verjus’s mission and discusses various developments and challenges. He mentions the reprinting of his work, “Novissima Sinica,” his contemplation of a new character system for precise calculations, and his progress in the calculus of infinitesimals. Leibniz shares his enthusiasm for the spread of Christianity in China and the potential for evangelical work there. He also discusses topics such as Tartar conflicts, the death of the Chinese monarch, and the provision of his works to other individuals. Leibniz emphasizes the importance of knowledge exchange between Europe and China, suggesting that missionaries engage in research and compilation of Chinese knowledge. He concludes by stating that investigating Chinese knowledge is crucial for the advancement of both religion and science.

On the Book of an English Anti-Trinitarian, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s paper on the book of an English anti-Trinitarian, containing considerations on several explanations of the Trinity, was published in the year 1693-4. Leibniz discusses the Trinity and his objections to the concept of three absolute substances, each infinite, eternal, and perfect. He argues that the Sabellian opinion, which considers the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three names for the same being, cannot be reconciled with the passages in the Holy Scriptures. Leibniz also believes that the explanation given by the Socinians is too violent. He proposes that divine honors should only be given to a single individual, absolute, sovereign, and infinite substance. Leibniz acknowledges that the explanation of the mysteries of religion is not necessary, and it would be best to stick to the revealed terms as much as possible. He further discusses the difficulties in explaining what a person is and suggests that there are relations within the divine substance that distinguish the persons. Leibniz believes that there is no example in nature that adequately corresponds to the notion of divine persons, but finds the reflection of spirits to be the most suitable illustration.

Letter on the Question of Whether the Essence of Body Consists in Extension, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, in a letter written in 1691, discusses whether the essence of body consists solely in extension, as many people believed at the time. He argues that if this were the case, then extension alone would explain all the properties of matter, which is not the case. He believes that there is more to matter than just extension, including the quality of natural inertia. He argues that the notion of substance, action, and force must be added to extension to fully understand the nature of matter. Leibniz believes that this consideration is important not only for understanding the nature of matter but also for recognizing the higher and immaterial principles in physics.

Preface to General Science, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

In this preface to “General Science”, Leibniz argues that science is necessary for true happiness as it provides assurance about the future based on knowledge of God and the soul. He also argues that the true method for science is unknown and only exists in mathematics, but it is still imperfect. Leibniz believes that finding characters or signs suitable for expressing all our thoughts would be the solution to the problem. This language would be difficult to create but easy to learn, and it would serve as an instrument of reason. Leibniz considers this project to be the last effort of the human mind and believes that it would depend only on men to be happy once completed.

Funny Thought, Concerning a New Kind of Representations, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

In this 1675 paper, Leibniz proposes the establishment of a fund to support the creation of public representations showcasing new inventions and curiosities. Leibniz suggests that a group of influential individuals, with the ability to fund such an endeavor, could hire painters, sculptors, mathematicians, engineers, and others to create a theater of all imaginable things, including magic lanterns, flights, optical marvels, representations of the sky and stars, comets, globes, fireworks, rare animals, artificial horse races, and more. Leibniz argues that such an endeavor would promote the growth of science and provide entertainment and education for the public. He suggests that the endeavor could also serve as a bureau for inventors to showcase their inventions and profit from them. Finally, Leibniz proposes the inclusion of a purchasing office, a poster registry, and other useful amenities, such as a Marionettes du Marmis with the Pygmies and shadows on a theater stage.

Confession of Nature Against Atheists, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's early work on metaphysics, physics, ethics, politics, and theology during his time in Mainz (1668–1672) was deeply influenced by both modern scientific developments and Christian theological doctrines. His overarching aim was to reconcile mechanistic physics with theistic metaphysical principles, ensuring consistency between the two.

Leibniz sought to develop a metaphysical foundation that upheld Christian theological principles while embracing the mechanistic explanations of nature advocated by modern philosophers such as Descartes, Boyle, and Gassendi. His early metaphysical inquiries revolved around defining substance, mind, and body, gradually shifting from a Cartesian view to a more radical theory in which body was reinterpreted as inherently tied to incorporeal principles.

A key milestone in this period was his Confessio Naturae contra Atheistas (1668), which argued that mechanical physics alone was insufficient to explain corporeal phenomena, necessitating an incorporeal principle—God. This distinction between physics and metaphysics led to Leibniz’s formulation of the principle of sufficient reason (everything must have a reason or explanation), a foundational idea in his later philosophy.

His physics research, inspired by debates over the laws of motion at the Royal Society, initially followed Cartesian principles but evolved with his study of Hobbes’ concept of conatus (endeavor), which Leibniz reinterpreted as an infinitesimal force that constituted motion. This idea contributed to his notion that bodies contained internal principles of activity, prefiguring his later monadology.