Boethius’s Second Commentary on Aristotle’s On Interpretation

Boethius’s second commentary on Aristotle’s “On Interpretation” focuses on semantic theory and the relationship between language and thought. He elaborates on Aristotle’s view that spoken words and written letters are signs of the affections or thoughts in the soul, which primarily refer to things in the world. Boethius argues that words primarily designate thoughts and only secondarily signify things. He presents Aristotle’s semantic theory as a response to debates about the nature of language, highlighting the distinction between the conventional nature of language and the universal nature of thoughts and things. Boethius also explores the problem of how different individuals can have the same thought when observing the same object but using different words. He proposes a causal theory, suggesting that thoughts are identical because they are caused by the same object or event.

In addition to semantic theory, Boethius addresses the topic of future contingents and divine prescience. He examines Aristotle’s discussion on truth and falsehood in relation to future-tense sentences about contingent events. Boethius suggests that future contingent statements are indefinitely, not definitely, true or false. He offers interpretations of how truth values can be assigned to such statements, considering the retrospective fixation of truth value after the event. Boethius also discusses the issue of divine prescience, asserting that God’s knowledge encompasses the contingency of future events and does not imply determinism or necessitate everything to happen of necessity. His commentary provides valuable insights into these philosophical topics.

Conduct Towards Others, by Louis Lavelle

Conduct Towards Others, by Louis Lavelle, is a collection of texts that explore various aspects of human interaction and relationships. The book is divided into twelve chapters, each delving into different dimensions of how individuals relate to others and the world around them. Lavelle’s writings touch on topics such as the place of humanity in the world, the significance of presence and intimacy, the interconnectedness of all individuals, the dynamics of society and appearances, the virtues of discretion and consideration, the complexities of love and friendship, the role of justice and reciprocity, and the spiritualization of nature.

The chapters cover a wide range of themes, including the exploration of personal identity, the importance of genuine connections with others, the impact of our actions on the world, and the pursuit of spiritual growth. Lavelle examines concepts such as empathy, forgiveness, indifference, hatred, love, and the pursuit of virtue. Through his thought-provoking insights and reflections, Lavelle offers guidance on how individuals can navigate their relationships with others and cultivate a more meaningful and compassionate approach to life. “Conduct towards others” serves as a valuable resource for those seeking to deepen their understanding of human interactions and foster harmonious relationships in their personal and social lives.

Evil and Suffering, by Louis Lavelle

In two essays, first published in book form in 1940, Louis Lavelle dissects Evil and Suffering, tracing their relations to Good and Happiness, Body and Spirit, Matter and Spirit. Evil and Suffering is considered a work of moral philosophy. In it, Lavelle leads us to reflect on suffering and how it is embedded in the internal and external world of being. According to the author, the spirit arises from this experience of experiencing suffering.

The marks that pain causes in us allow us to transcend what we are to the external world, after we come to terms with suffering in the internal world. If suffering is an inherent condition of human life, it remains for us to do our best, face it, and overcome it. According to Lavelle, it is suffering itself that gives meaning to life; but this is only possible if there is an awareness that one is suffering, as it is this awareness that awakens the spirit. Through antitheses, the author also tells us that it is in absence that we find presence, in darkness that we see light, in solitude that we find communion, in an interior deepening where we perceive reality. Therefore, suffering connects beings. Pain shapes us, awakens us, and makes us better beings if we know how to confront it. The reading of this book, with its incredible spiritual richness, generates a dialogue within us about suffering, in order to transcend it.

Machiavelli, or, The Demonic Confusion, by Olavo de Carvalho

The origin of this essay dates back to the political philosophy course delivered in 2004 by Olavo de Carvalho to the Public Administration students of the Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná. From the notes prepared for these classes, the author wrote the first version of the essay, which was thought of as one of the chapters of a larger work on the revolutionary mindset, but ended up being published separately in 2011 due to its length.

Among the most famous modern thinkers, Niccolò Machiavelli is perhaps the first to present to the public such a disjointed and confusing doctrine. So disjointed and so confusing that one of his best interpreters, Benedetto Croce, summarized four centuries of investigations with the disenchanted conclusion that the Florentine thinker is ‘an enigma that will never be solved.’ After Croce, other first-rate scholars like Leo Strauss, Quentin Skinner, Hans Baron, and Maurizio Viroli believed they could solve the enigma; however, the solutions they offered differed so much from each other that they only managed to multiply it.

Consciousness of Immortality, by Olavo de Carvalho

In October 2010, the philosopher Olavo de Carvalho taught the course The Consciousness of Immortality in Colonial Heights, Virginia, which was later transcribed by his students. The transcriptions were organized and prepared by Ronald Robson and later edited and revised by the author, with the assistance of Mariana Reis. The result of this process, which emphasized the orality of the record, is presented in this book, which also includes a series of articles and lecture notes by the philosopher on the same course topic.

If we are immortal, we must be so in essence and not by accident. Immortality is then our true condition and the reality plane in which we effectively exist. In this case, the present bodily life is nothing more than a tiny fraction of our reality, a momentary appearance that conceals our true substance. Consequently, all the knowledge we can acquire within the limits of bodily existence is merely an appearance within an appearance. Although it grasps genuine portions of reality, it cannot have its own foundation within itself, but must seek it in the sphere of immortality.

The Error of Narcissus, by Louis Lavelle

The Error of Narcissus is not, contrary to what the title suggests, a lengthy meditation on the myth of Narcissus - this is merely its starting point. Louis Lavelle starts from the idea of self-enclosure to ask himself what would be the openness to the other within the common world, which for him is the “total presence.” Thus, Lavelle dedicates himself to themes such as measure, which is “at the same time this tension and understanding that make each thing be in its place, that make each faculty exercise its most direct and strongest play,” and wisdom, which, “instead of being, as is commonly believed, a renunciation of the absolute, is, on the contrary, that encounter with the absolute that gives each thing its measure.” Ultimately, Lavelle seeks an existential perfection, conjecturing standards by which a person could judge their most intimate actions and reach purity, “so perfect and so united that it offers no opening for any attack. It does not divide itself to know itself.”

What Is Psyche, by Olavo de Carvalho

In Olavo de Carvalho’s essay What Is Psyche, the concept of psyche is explored within the context of ancient and modern psychology. Olavo highlights the differences between ancient and modern approaches, with ancient psychology focusing on the unified vision of life and soul, while modern psychology seeks to differentiate itself from other scientific disciplines. The essay examines the attribution of psychic causes to behavior and raises questions about how psychologists distinguish psychic causes from other possible causes.

Olavo proposes four causes: physical, logical, chance, and psychic, and defines psyche as a zone of indeterminacy where these causes combine. He argues that psyche acts through these causes rather than directly. The distinction between psyche and chance is discussed, with psyche exhibiting elements of freedom and indeterminacy that serve the individual organism’s interests.

The characteristics of the psyche, including efficiency, freedom, creativity, will to power, and individuality, are outlined. The essay explores the processes of adaptation, expansion, perception, memory, and learning within the operations of psyche. The ego’s formation and its role in self-limitation of the psyche are discussed, along with the various notions of the unconscious. Olavo concludes by emphasizing that the psyche is the principle of human freedom, seeking to manifest itself by adapting to limitations, and psychotherapy aims to address the limitations of the ego and establish a balance with individuality and the external situation.

Intelligence, Truth, and Certainty, by Olavo de Carvalho

Intelligence, Truth, and Certainty, by Olavo de Carvalho, is a comprehensive work that delves into the nature of intelligence and its relationship with truth and certainty. The author critiques prevailing views on intelligence, challenges the notion of artificial thinking, explores evidence and certainty, examines the connection between intelligence and will, and discusses the importance of intellectual elites, independent thinking, doubt, and self-awareness. The work emphasizes the role of intelligence in apprehending truth, cultivating a desire for truth, and making judgments of truth or falsehood. It underscores the importance of embracing doubt, intellectual humility, and the formation of an intellectual elite based on shared belief in the power of human intelligence. The development of reflective consciousness and self-awareness is highlighted as essential for the pursuit of knowledge and the transformation of knowledge into self-awareness. Overall, the work provides a thought-provoking exploration of intelligence, truth, and certainty, urging readers to prioritize the pursuit of truth and engage in independent thinking.

Visions of Descartes, by Olavo de Carvalho

Olavo de Carvalho gathers in this book the essentials of what he has taught about René Descartes in his courses and conferences. Convinced that philosophy does not arise from a taste for abstract reasoning, but from the impulse to apprehend and express the universal meaning of accessible experience, the author leads us to a return from Descartes’s ideas to the real experiences that originated them. This method does not aim to provide a psychological explanation of a philosophy, but to clarify the effective meaning that the ideas had in the individual consciousness of the philosopher who conceived them, beyond – and beneath – the formal and dictionary sense they acquired throughout the philosophical tradition. For Olavo de Carvalho, Descartes’s philosophy is not an abstract system of ideas, but a cognitive drama.

Boethius’s First Commentary on Aristotle’s On Interpretation

Boethius’s first commentary on Aristotle’s “On Interpretation” aims to provide a deeper understanding of the book’s complex content and make it more accessible to readers. Boethius acknowledges the high regard that Aristotle’s work holds within the Peripatetic school, particularly in its meticulous examination of simple propositions. However, he also recognizes that the text presents difficulties and intricate judgments, making it challenging to comprehend easily. To address these challenges, Boethius has added two layers of commentary to supplement the interpretation of the book. By unraveling the concise and cryptic discourse, Boethius aims to bring clarity to the fundamental concepts of sentences. While some aspects require a deeper level of insight, which will be addressed in a subsequent series, Boethius assures readers that they can expect to grasp the material gradually by following the order of the text and the flow of the speech. Overall, Boethius’s first commentary intends to facilitate a step-by-step understanding of the content hidden within the brevity of Aristotle’s work.

Self-consciousness, by Louis Lavelle

The title of this book is “La conscience de soi”, which could be rendered most literally as “the consciousness of one’s self”, or more idiomatically as “self-consciousness” or “self-awareness”. Due to the constant uses of “consciousness” throughout the book which could not be very aptly rendered “awareness”, I went with the former. French does not have separate words for “conscience” and “consciousness”, but the latter sense is clearly indicated by speaking of “(consciousness) of” something, namely yourself.

Elements of Olavo de Carvalho’s Philosophy, by Ronald Robson

“Elements of Olavo de Carvalho’s Philosophy”, by Ronald Robson, provides a comprehensive overview of the key principles and concepts in the philosophical framework developed by Olavo de Carvalho. The work emphasizes the significance of individual consciousness as the foundation of knowledge, going beyond traditional subject-object distinctions. Olavo’s philosophy explores the complex layers of personality and the process of self-awareness, proposing a theory of twelve distinct layers that shape an individual’s development. The book delves into the role of confession and the method of extrusion in integrating personal experiences and articulating them through language.

The text also delves into the theory of four discourses, drawing inspiration from Aristotle’s work, to understand different modes of human communication. Olavo’s philosophy encompasses the investigation of reality and the world of principles, aiming to uncover the metaphysical foundations that govern existence. The author explores the importance of knowledge through presence, training consciousness to allow reality to speak to it, and advocates for cultural criticism as a means to challenge symbolic and political structures that limit individual consciousness.

Furthermore, the book delves into the concepts of cognitive parallax and the revolutionary mentality, highlighting their impact on intellectual understanding and social dynamics. Olavo’s political theory is presented, focusing on power as the ability to determine the actions of others, and identifying economic, military, and intellectual powers as essential aspects. The text concludes by emphasizing the significance of individual consciousness and self-awareness in Olavo’s philosophy, as well as the role of traditions, esoteric organizations, and intellectual orders as shaping forces in history.

Overall, “Elements of Olavo de Carvalho’s Philosophy” provides a comprehensive and in-depth exploration of the key ideas and principles within Olavo’s philosophical framework, encompassing metaphysics, epistemology, and political theory. It offers valuable insights into the nature of knowledge, individual development, communication, and societal dynamics, making it a significant contribution to the understanding of Olavo’s philosophical perspectives. After the end we have a list of references, which has been left untranslated, as most of the works have not been translated into English yet.

The Posthumous Man, by Mário Ferreira dos Santos

This is a book about Nietzsche by Mário Ferreira dos Santos. The title of the book in Portuguese was “O Homem Que Nasceu Póstumo”, or literally, “The Man Who Was Born Posthumous”. It is named after the famous quote by Nietzsche from his book “The Anti-Christ”, in which he said that “some men are born posthumously”. The thing is that in Portuguese, this quote is typically rendered “alguns homens nascem póstumos”, i.e., “some men are born posthumous”, with the adjective rather than the adverb. (Which, as far as I know, is equally allowed by the German, “Einige werden posthum geboren”.)

The subtle change in sense given by this common rendering into Portuguese, however, may be highlighted by the fact that, in quotation (rather than translation), people sometimes insert the word “já” after “homens”, giving the sense that “some men are already born posthumous”, or, some men are already posthumous at their birth. It conveys a sense of being fated, since your birth, to be “posthumous”, i.e., to be only known from your remains. It’s not that “the discovery of your remains is your true birth”, but rather that you were a “posthumous person” throughout your whole life, since you were born. It puts quite a different emphasis on Nietzsche’s meaning.

Pythagoras and the Theme of Number, by Mário Ferreira dos Santos

“God made the integers, all the rest is the work of men” (Kroneker).

“I am everything that has been, and everything that will be, and no mortal has ever lifted my veil” (Isis, according to the inscription of Sais, reported by Plutarch).

Logic and Dialectic, by Mário Ferreira dos Santos

Modern philosophy has repositioned the logical problem, influenced by Kant’s criticism and Hegel’s dialectical contributions. Despite being overlooked and subject to derogatory criticism, Dialectics has made significant contributions to logical categories and science. This book explores Formal Logic, General Dialectics, and Decadialectics, adhering to certain norms. Formal Logic is briefly covered as its achievements are considered definitive, while new possibilities within the field, including phenomenological analysis, will be explored in “Philosophical Themes and Problems.” Dialectics, a growing discipline, requires answers to emerging questions. General Dialectics encompasses various important themes and necessitates investigations in other fields, acknowledging the influence of sensory, somatic, and affective aspects. Hegelian thought and dialectical perspective are relevant to philosophy, leading to the construction of a comprehensive worldview. This volume focuses on general aspects and introduces Decadialectics, aiming to coordinate existing dialectical structures. Other works will delve into specific dialectical topics. The methodology presented in this book enables comprehensive analyses while recognizing the partial role of formal logic. Dialectics is a logic of existence and becoming, encompassing oppositions without excluding formal logic.