Treatise on Metaphysics by Voltaire

In chapter XXV of his Memoirs published in 1826, Longchamp recounts that he was tasked with stoking the fire in which papers recommended by Madame du Châtelet to be burned after her death had been thrown. He managed to save a notebook filled with very small writing, which contained the Treatise on Metaphysics (1734). It was first published in the Kehl editions. “This work is all the more valuable,” said the publishers, “because it was not intended for publication, so the author was able to express his entire thoughts. It contains his true opinions, not just those he believed he could develop without compromising himself. It shows that he was strongly convinced of the existence of a Supreme Being, and even of the immortality of the soul, but without concealing the difficulties that arise against these two opinions, and which no philosopher has yet completely resolved.”

Voltaire offered it to Madame du Châtelet, for whom he had composed it, along with the following quatrain:

The author of the metaphysics
That we bring to your feet
Deserved to be cooked in the public square,
But he only burned for you.

On the Book of an English Anti-Trinitarian, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s paper on the book of an English anti-Trinitarian, containing considerations on several explanations of the Trinity, was published in the year 1693-4. Leibniz discusses the Trinity and his objections to the concept of three absolute substances, each infinite, eternal, and perfect. He argues that the Sabellian opinion, which considers the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three names for the same being, cannot be reconciled with the passages in the Holy Scriptures. Leibniz also believes that the explanation given by the Socinians is too violent. He proposes that divine honors should only be given to a single individual, absolute, sovereign, and infinite substance. Leibniz acknowledges that the explanation of the mysteries of religion is not necessary, and it would be best to stick to the revealed terms as much as possible. He further discusses the difficulties in explaining what a person is and suggests that there are relations within the divine substance that distinguish the persons. Leibniz believes that there is no example in nature that adequately corresponds to the notion of divine persons, but finds the reflection of spirits to be the most suitable illustration.

Letter on the Question of Whether the Essence of Body Consists in Extension, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, in a letter written in 1691, discusses whether the essence of body consists solely in extension, as many people believed at the time. He argues that if this were the case, then extension alone would explain all the properties of matter, which is not the case. He believes that there is more to matter than just extension, including the quality of natural inertia. He argues that the notion of substance, action, and force must be added to extension to fully understand the nature of matter. Leibniz believes that this consideration is important not only for understanding the nature of matter but also for recognizing the higher and immaterial principles in physics.

Boethius’s First Commentary on Porphyry’s Isagoge

The commentary is divided into two books, with the first book providing an introduction to the dialogue and the theoretical and practical subdivisions and functions of philosophy. Boethius emphasizes the importance of logical reasoning and grammar in philosophy and explores Porphyry’s approach to the concepts of genera and species, definition, and predication. The second book focuses on the commonalities and distinctive features of genera, difference, species, accident, and property, and provides a detailed analysis of the implications of Porphyry’s work for the study of ontology and logic.

The setting for the commentary is in the Aurelian Mountains, where Boethius and his friend Fabius decided to review the works of the most learned men with some kind of introductory commentaries to shed light on the matters that are most obscure to the intellect. The purpose of the commentary is to provide a detailed analysis and explanation of Porphyry’s Isagoge, and to shed light on the theoretical and practical subdivisions and functions of philosophy.

Before the Death Penalty, by Shusui Kotoku

In Before the Death Penalty (死刑の前, “Shikei no mae”), Shusui Kotoku reflects on life, death, morality, and the death penalty while awaiting his own execution in Tokyo Prison. He discusses how death is inevitable and should not be feared but rather embraced as a natural part of life. He also argues that social value lies in one’s personality, accomplishments, and influence, and that death can be seen as remarkable if one lived and died for a purpose. Kotoku acknowledges that not everyone has the natural endowments for a long life, but that the prime of life is the time to work with all one’s might for something important.

Kotoku also reflects on the death penalty and how its fear and horror stem from the belief that only extremely wicked or guilty people are sentenced to death. He argues that the justification of the death penalty is not important to the individual facing it, and that when it is time to die, one should face it with complete peace of mind and satisfaction. Ultimately, Kotoku suggests that death, whether it be by the death penalty or by natural means, should be accepted with grace and dignity.

Philosophy and Worldview, by Mário Ferreira dos Santos

Philosophy and Worldview, by the Brazilian philosopher Mário Ferreira dos Santos, is an introduction to philosophy, an encyclopedic presentation of philosophical ideas, and an original work of philosophy. The book is didactic, erudite, and profound, and according to the author, one cannot learn philosophy without doing philosophy. The author recognizes the Brazilian people’s intelligence but notes a lack of discipline and a rush for knowledge due to the autodidacticism that is mandatory in the country. He chooses to present philosophy in a way that is considerate of these gaps in knowledge, and uses language that is rigorous but not presumptuous of the reader’s understanding. The book progresses from a simple explanation of philosophical concepts to a more detailed analysis, with the ultimate goal of providing a worldview and methodology for life.

Logical Principles, by Destutt de Tracy

Logical Principles, or, a Comprehensive Collection of Facts and Observations Related to Human Intelligence: Exploring the Fundamentals of Rational Thinking, Reasoning, and Understanding, as Expounded by Mr. DESTUTT de TRACY, Count, Peer of France, Distinguished Member of the Institute of France, and of the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, Published in Paris in 1817 by Mrs. Ve COURCIER, a Respected Printer-Librarian Located in the Picturesque Saint-André-des-Arcs District on Rue du Jardinet.

Preface to General Science, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

In this preface to “General Science”, Leibniz argues that science is necessary for true happiness as it provides assurance about the future based on knowledge of God and the soul. He also argues that the true method for science is unknown and only exists in mathematics, but it is still imperfect. Leibniz believes that finding characters or signs suitable for expressing all our thoughts would be the solution to the problem. This language would be difficult to create but easy to learn, and it would serve as an instrument of reason. Leibniz considers this project to be the last effort of the human mind and believes that it would depend only on men to be happy once completed.

Funny Thought, Concerning a New Kind of Representations, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

In this 1675 paper, Leibniz proposes the establishment of a fund to support the creation of public representations showcasing new inventions and curiosities. Leibniz suggests that a group of influential individuals, with the ability to fund such an endeavor, could hire painters, sculptors, mathematicians, engineers, and others to create a theater of all imaginable things, including magic lanterns, flights, optical marvels, representations of the sky and stars, comets, globes, fireworks, rare animals, artificial horse races, and more. Leibniz argues that such an endeavor would promote the growth of science and provide entertainment and education for the public. He suggests that the endeavor could also serve as a bureau for inventors to showcase their inventions and profit from them. Finally, Leibniz proposes the inclusion of a purchasing office, a poster registry, and other useful amenities, such as a Marionettes du Marmis with the Pygmies and shadows on a theater stage.

On the Highest Good, or On the Philosophical Life, by Boethius of Dacia

In On the Highest Good, or On the Philosophical Life, Boethius of Dacia argues that the highest good possible for humans is the knowledge of truth, the operation of good, and the pleasure in both. This constitutes human happiness, which is the ultimate end of human life. The art of war is ordered in society so that citizens can be free to contemplate the truth through intellectual virtues and to practice good through moral virtues, which ultimately leads to a happy life. A person who desires a long life for the sake of making themselves more perfect in this good desires it reasonably. The highest good owed to man is according to his best virtue, which is reason and intellect. Therefore, the highest good that is possible for man is owed to him according to his intellect. The highest good that is possible for man according to speculative intellect is the knowledge of truth in all things and the delight in it. The virtuous philosopher speaks morally for three reasons: they understand the ugliness of a sinful action, they have tasted a greater pleasure and reject lesser pleasures, and there is no sin in understanding and contemplating. The philosopher leads a very pleasurable life, in accordance with the natural order, and has the greatest love and admiration for the first principle, which is God.

On the Eternity of the World, by Boethius of Dacia

True to their Aristotelian leanings, the Latin Averroists acknowledged Aristotle’s assertion that the world did not begin in creation and is eternal. As Richard Dales has, shown, however, even so ardent a proponent of Aristotle as Boethius of Dacia did not accept Aristotle’s conception of time and eternity uncritically. Indeed, when he set about to write his own account of the eternity of the world, Boethius of Dacia’s main source was neither Aristotle nor Averroes, but Maimonides. Boethius chose the complex problem of eternity to illustrate his thesis that there is no conflict between Christian faith and classical philosophy. His argument rested on his belief that natural philosophy-the observation of the world as it actually is-has no connection with speculation about the possibility of supernatural creation. Like Maimonides, Boethius believed that neither the eternity of the world nor its creation in time could be proven through demonstrable arguments, although he showed a greater willingness than Maimonides to accept the possibility of an eternal world. In an attempt to correct the misconceptions of his predecessors , however, Boethius followed an argument proposed by Maimonides to demonstrate that Aristotle had not successfully proven the eternity of the world. Preoccupied as he was with the thirteenth-century debates concerning the relationship of faith to reason, Boethius felt compelled to find a way of balancing his own deep commitment to philosophy with the religious concerns which dominated his age. His reading of Maimonides aided him in envisioning the problem of eternity as a significant but abstract problem which the methods of neither theology nor natural philosophy could solve. His conclusion that faith and reason should not be forced to compete in the search for truth is an approach which was not regularly taken in the middle ages. Nevertheless, his atypical approach focused attention on the struggle between faith and reason which influenced all medieval discussions of time. As we shall see, those fourteenth-century theologians who eventually tried tentatively to separate faith from reason were profoundly disturbed by the implications their predecessors’ speculations had for both theology and natural philosophy.

—Edith Wilks Dolnikowski, Thomas Bradwardine, §3

Book of Six Principles, by Gilbert of Poitiers

The middle ages traditionally ascribed to Gilbert the treatise known by the titles of De sex principiis, or Liber sex principiorum. It is a metaphysical interpretation of Aristotle’s treatise on logic, the Categories. Logically equivalent, the categories of Aristotle are not so for the metaphysician. When we say: substance, quantity, quality, etc., it is obvious that, in reality itself, substance is something very different from color, figure, size, etc. Dividing the ten categories into two groups, the author of this treatise listed together, on the one hand, substance, quantity, quality and relation, and on the other hand, the last six categories (sex principia): place, time, situation, habit, action and passion. To him, categories are not merely types of logical predication; they are forms. The first group of four comprises “inherent forms”; the second group of six comprises “accessory forms” (formae assistentes). It is to be noted, with Hauréau, that Abelard also calls the two categories of “place” and “time”: principia adjacentia, but the chronology of their respective writings is too uncertain for us to draw any conclusion as to possible relations between them.

Taken in itself, the distinction was an important one. This treatise calls “inherent” the forms or principles which are either substance itself or inherent in substance itself irrespective of its relations with other substances. Such is manifestly the case with quantity and quality, the quantity of a substance being its own quantity and its qualities its own qualities. At first glance, the contrary seems true of relations, yet, taken in itself, relation is the natural aptitude of a substance to be one of the two terms of a relation. As such, it is inherent in the substance, since it is of the essence of a substance to be apt to become one of the terms of a relation. In thus binding relation to substance, this treatise initiated a controversy which was never to cease during the middle ages: is relation real, or is it a mere ens rationis? As to the six remaining principles, it is clear that each of them is only an accessory determination of substance. Situation is the one most closely related to substance; place and time come next; then action and passion; finally habitus (permanent possession), which is the most extrinsic of the six, since its possessor is often another being than the thing possessed.

— Étienne Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, 3.1

Dialogue Against the Jews by Peter Alphonsus

The Dialogue of Peter, surnamed Alphonsus, a Christian convert from Judaism, and Moses the Jew, in which the impious opinions of the Jews are refuted by the most evident arguments of both natural and celestial philosophy, and some more obscure passages of the prophets are explained. (Biblioth. Petr. Lugdun., XXI, 172.)

The book is divided into twelve titles and is arranged as a dialogue in order to engage the reader’s mind. Peter explains his conversion to Christianity, and refutes objections to the Christian faith with reason and authority. The book aims to show that the Christian law is superior to all others, and to provide a defense of Christian beliefs.

Note that a more professional edition and translation of this book has been published by Catholic University of America Press.

On the Order of Baptism, by Theodulfus (9th century)

To the most reverend and beloved brother, Bishop Magnus, Theodulfus sends greetings.

I have fulfilled your command, venerable Sir Magnus, and although not with diligent efficiency, I have certainly done so with complete obedience. You instructed me, or rather charity instructed me through you, to answer briefly and quickly some questions about the order of baptism which were sent to you by Lord and glorious Emperor Charles. With the constraint of brevity on my part, in which I was forced to explain great things in a short discourse, and the narrowness of time on the other, in which I wanted to fulfill your orders quickly, I completed what you commanded. Oh, if only this work could have been done as efficiently as it was willingly undertaken! Although I had no opportunity to deal with each subject in detail and to study the volumes of the Fathers due to other occupations, and charity urged me to fulfill the order, I wrote quickly on each topic that occurred to me, so that if there is no benefit from the responses, at least there may be the fruit of obedience to your fraternity.

These questions, as I am sure you know, were not made out of the necessity of learning from a royal relationship, but out of the desire to teach, not so that the questioner himself may be educated on what he does not know, but so that others may be encouraged to finish things useful by being awakened from the sleep of idle laziness. For he who is always familiar with this matter, exercises bishops in the investigation of the Holy Scriptures, and all the clergy in discipline, philosophers in the knowledge of divine and human affairs, monks in religion, all generally in sanctity, princes in counsel, judges in justice, soldiers in the experience of arms, prelates in humility, subjects in obedience, and all generally in prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance, and harmony. This excellent man never ceases, with God’s grace, to accumulate the highest point of the Holy Church in these and similar things, and to excel in the administration of ecclesiastical or civil affairs with remarkable diligence, to overflow from the source of wisdom, and to triumph in the exhibition of virtue.

Micrologus, by Guido of Arezzo

In the name of the supreme and undivided Trinity, begins the Micrologus, that is, a brief discourse by Abbot Guido on music.

It pleased the gymnasium to recall the unbound Muses.

So that they may be apparent to the small, scarcely dwelling in the high places thus far.

Let love destroy envy’s blind weapon.

Indeed, a terrible plague has taken all good things from the earth.

I wrote myself in the first order, the one who composed songs.

On the Cathars, by Hildegard of Bingen

In July of the present year, which is the one thousand one hundred and sixty-third of the Lord’s incarnation, I saw from afar, in the shadow of a true vision, under the altar that is before the eyes of God, and I also saw under the throne of God.

Duties of Man, by Giuseppe Mazzini

The Duties of Man (Doveri dell’uomo) is a book written by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1860, which presents his theory of natural law as a complement to the theory of human rights. Mazzini argues that while individual rights are important, their proclamation has led to the atomization of society, depriving individuals of the protections that social constraints provided, and reducing the enjoyment of rights to a law of the strongest. Instead, Mazzini proposes a new principle of duty, which guides individuals to act not for their own happiness, but to procure better conditions for their neighbor, in the pursuit of progress for all humanity.

According to Mazzini, this principle of duty will help to form individuals who are not selfish, but rather dedicated to making themselves and others better. By fighting against injustice and error, individuals can fulfill their duty to help their brothers, which is not only a right but also a necessary duty for all of life. Mazzini’s ideas in The Duties of Man influenced many post-colonial leaders, including Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Nehru, who considered the book to be their moral, ethical, and political Bible.

Every Creature of the World, by Alain de Lille

The poem has been translated into a non-rhyming and a rhyming version.

Confession of Nature Against Atheists, by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

The Confession of Nature Against Atheists, written by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1668, is divided into two parts. In the first part, Leibniz argues that the explanation of bodily phenomena cannot be given without an incorporeal principle, that is, God. He argues that bodies cannot exist without an incorporeal cause and demonstrates this by showing that a determined shape and size cannot exist in bodies left to themselves. Leibniz then goes on to argue that the incorporeal being governing the entire world is God.

In the second part of the work, Leibniz argues for the immortality of the human mind. He does this by demonstrating that the human mind is a being whose action is thought, and that thought is a thing immediately sensible without the imagination of parts. He goes on to show that a being whose action is a thing without parts is not a body and therefore not subject to dissolution. Leibniz concludes that the human mind is immortal.

Social Revolution Demonstrated by the Coup d’État of December 2, 1851, by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

Proudhon’s 1852 work, The Social Revolution Demonstrated by the Coup d’État of December 2, 1851, has been neglected by many readers due to its reputation as a work written in support of Louis-Napoleon’s coup and regime. However, a careful reading of the text reveals that Proudhon had been predicting events similar to the coup for some time and that the events of December 1851 had as much to do with broader historical movements as they did with the new Emperor. Proudhon argues that the people are indifferent to governmental forms as long as their interests are served, and he calls this indifference revolutionary. The work concludes with the famous line “Anarchy or Caesarism,” in which Proudhon addresses the question of whether he would support the new government. He responds by saying that he holds himself apart from government and instead joins himself with the party of labor and progress, accepting as its goal and motto “the Education of the People.” Proudhon also expresses his love for France and his belief that the unity of the human race is the unity of his homeland.

Commentary on Aristotle’s Categories by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius

Boethius’ commentary on Aristotle’s Categories is a comprehensive analysis of Aristotle’s original work, aiming to provide a clear and moderate explanation without burdening or confusing the reader. It is divided into four books. Book One covers equivocal terms, univocal things, denominatives, and substance; Book Two discusses quantity and relatives; Book Three focuses on quality, action and passion, situation and position, where and when, and having; and Book Four covers opposites, priority and simultaneity, species of motion, and ways of having. Boethius believes his work is crucial to the intellectual development of his fellow citizens, emphasizing the importance of Greek wisdom in enriching the customs of his city. Despite his duties as a consul, he finds it necessary to contribute to the study and understanding of Aristotle’s Categories, emphasizing its significance in shaping the knowledge and values of his society. Ultimately, Boethius aims to make Aristotle’s complex ideas more accessible to a wider audience, fostering appreciation for philosophy and promoting intellectual growth in his contemporaries.

On Secrets, by Thomas Aquinas

In this short work, Saint Thomas Aquinas addresses various questions related to secrets. He argues that in cases where someone accuses another of a hidden sin that cannot be proven, the superior should not order the accused to tell the truth in the presence of the accuser, nor is the accused obligated to expose themselves. He also states that in secret matters, man cannot be a judge and, therefore, should not order or proceed unless they are a judge. However, if there is an imminent danger of scandal or harm to the community, the superior can order the subject to reveal the secret. Aquinas also discusses whether a confessor is obliged to reveal the origin of a letter containing dangerous evils of another person, which he received under secrecy, and concludes that the superior should not order the confessor to disclose where he got the letter. Lastly, he addresses the question of whether the superior can inquire by command, and the one who did it, reveal who committed a crime that is not known, and provides his opinion that the superior can order in general, but other masters do not agree.

Vertical Invasion of the Barbarians, by Mário Ferreira dos Santos

“Vertical Invasion of the Barbarians”, by Mário Ferreira dos Santos, is a manifesto denouncing the invasion of barbarism in Western culture. The book focuses on the concept of vertical invasion, where a people’s culture is possessed and corrupted, leading to the decline of its spiritual and cultural geography. The author outlines the Greco-Roman, Jewish, and Christian traditions that make up the historical soul of the West and discusses the risks they face.

The book is divided into two parts: the invasion of affectivity and sensitivity, and the invasion of intellectual life. Through various empirical and historical examples, the author highlights the dangers of excessive force, devaluation of law, trivialization of art, and separation of reason and aesthetics in the first part. In the second part, he addresses the consequences of the separation between philosophy, religion, and science, and the rise of intellectual exclusion, defeatist negativity, and crude materialism.

The invaders are likened to demons emerging from the abyss of the human experience. The book ultimately serves as a call to arms, urging people to confront these invaders with reason and sensitivity, illuminating the abyss that lies beneath humanity’s existence.

The Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men, by Ramon Llull

MIGHTY GOD, whose power has no measure, nor quantity, nor time, with your grace and blessing, and with your help, so that you may be honored, loved, and served as befits your unending dignity, and with the small power of men, begins the BOOK OF THE GENTILE AND THE THREE WISE MEN.